Dysfunctional Sympathetic-Immune Interface in Disease States of the Gastrointestinal Tract

Sympathetic-Immune
Sympathetic-immune interface in gastrointestinal tract

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is an integrative interface between the central nervous system and viscera that contributes to the maintenance of homeostasis. It is comprised of cholinergic preganglionic sympathetic neurons which innervate postganglionic sympathetic neurons (PGSNs) and adrenal chromaffin cells (ACCs). Catecholamines and sympathetic co-transmitters, including adenosine triphosphate (ATP), or a related purine, and neuropeptide Y (NPY), are locally released by PGSNs and systemically secreted by ACCs [1,2]. Sympathetic activation underlies important fight-or-flight responses during stressful situations by increasing cardiac output, enhancing the blood supply to skeletal and cardiac muscle cells, elevating blood glucose levels, dilating the pupils and bronchioles, and decreasing gastrointestinal (GI) motility. In addition to these well-recognized functions, mounting evidence indicates that the SNS also provides dynamic regulation of the immune system [3-5].

The SNS provides complex modulation of immune function through the interaction of locally and systemically secreted catecholamines with adrenoceptors expressed by immune cells and accessory lymphoid structures. PGSNs innervate parenchymal immune cells within lymphoid tissues located throughout the body, including the gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) [6]. In addition, ACCs provide systemic catecholamines that can interact with both circulating and parenchymal immune cells. Depending upon the source of catecholamines, the type of adrenoceptor activated and the specific class of immune cell involved, the SNS can either enhance or inhibit inflammatory processes. In general, activation of beta-adrenoceptors limits inflammation by promoting humoral immunity and the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines, while inhibiting cellular immunity and proinflammatory cytokine release [3]. In contrast, alpha-adrenoceptors exert proinflammatory effects through immune cell activation.

During pathological GI inflammation, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), there is an inhibition of catecholamine secretion from PGSNs [7-10], a decreased availability of beta-adrenoceptors and an upregulation of alpha-adrenoceptor expression [11-13]. These alterations may promote the preferential activation of alpha-adrenoceptors expressed by immune cells located within the GI tract, thereby enhancing the severity of inflammation. In the present review, the role of sympathetic neuro-immune interactions during normal and pathological inflammatory processes in the GI tract is described.

Gut-associated lymphoid tissues

The GI tract is a tubular organ system extending from the oral cavity to the anus that functions to digest food, absorb nutrients and protect against infection. With respect to the latter, the GI tract gives rise to the largest mucosal surface in the body and is home to a diverse population of commensal bacteria that limit colonization by pathogens, generate important nutrients and contribute to immune system development [14-19]. However, if the composition of the GI microbiota is altered, commensal bacteria can become pathogenic and damage host tissues [20]. In addition to antigens derived from commensal bacteria, the GI tract is also exposed to an array of non-self antigens associated with food. The unique environment associated with the GI tract therefore requires a highly specialized immune system that can protect the body from pathogenic microbes and regulate bacterial colonization, while maintaining a state of tolerance toward innocuous food antigens and symbiotic bacteria.

A continuous sheet of epithelial cells connected by tight junctions and covered by an apical layer of mucous lines the GI lumen, forming a physical barrier against invading micro-organisms. A group of lymphoid structures, known as the GALT, responds to microbes and antigens that have breached the mucosal barrier. The GALT consists of organized lymphoid structures, including the mesenteric lymph nodes, isolated lymphoid follicles, cryptopatches and Peyer’s patches, as well as immune cells scattered throughout the GI mucosa. These immune structures generate tolerance toward innocuous antigens and orchestrate innate and adaptive immune responses against perceived pathogens [21]. GI immune cells exhibit unique characteristics that are thought to promote tolerance of commensal bacteria and food antigens. For example, lamina propria macrophages display decreased proinflammatory cytokine secretion and reduced expression of innate immune receptors that detect microbial antigens and stimulate immune responses [22,23]. Evidence also suggests that GI immune cells favour the secretion of tolerogenic type 2 T helper cell (Th2) cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-10 and IL-4, which suppress type 1 T helper cell (Th1) responses [3,21,24-26]. However, during pathological inflammatory conditions, proinflammatory cytokine secretion from GI macrophages is enhanced, and the balance of Th1 cytokines, including IL-2 and interferon (IFN)-gamma, to Th2 cytokines may become altered to promote an overall state of inflammation [27,28].

Microbes that have breached the epithelial barrier are rapidly eliminated by resident GI macrophages [23]. Penetrating antigens can also be taken up, processed and presented on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules by immature dendritic cells [24]. Dendritic cells presenting novel antigen enter local lymphatic vessels and access the mesenteric lymph nodes where they interact with naïve T cells expressing T cell receptors specific for the antigen that is being presented [29,30]. Depending upon the type of antigen and the inflammatory mediators present within the dendritic cell’s microenvironment, the dendritic cell can either promote tolerance of the antigen through T cell anergy or deletion, or it can initiate an immune response [24].

During an active immune response, dendritic cells promote clonal expansion of naïve T cells specific for the presented antigen, regulate T cell differentiation and help determine whether a predominantly Th1 or Th2 type response occurs [24]. Activated T cells then enter the systemic circulation and return to the GI tract, where they initiate an immune response specific to the invading antigen. Homing of activated T cells to the GI mucosa is achieved by localized chemokine production, and an upregulation of adhesion molecules expressed by primed T cells and endothelial cells in the GI microvasculature [21]. Given the complexity of GI immune responses to invading micro-organisms, it is likely that the inflammatory process is regulated at multiple levels by modulatory inputs, including the SNS.

Distribution of sympathetic axons in the gut and GALT

Neural regulation of GI function relies on a delicate balance of inputs from intrinsic and extrinsic neuronal populations. The enteric nervous system (ENS) provides intrinsic innervation of the GI tract and is composed of sensory, inter- and motor neurons located within the myenteric and submucosal plexuses [31]. Extrinsic innervation includes preganglionic parasympathetic neurons, extrinsic afferent neurons and PGSNs [31]. The majority of PGSNs that supply the GI tract have cell bodies in abdominal prevertebral ganglia, including the celiac, superior mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric ganglia [32,33]. These ganglia integrate central and peripheral inputs from preganglionic sympathetic neurons, PGSNs from neighbouring sympathetic ganglia, collaterals from spinal afferent neurons, and intestinofugal neurons of the ENS to regulate a variety of GI functions [32,33].

The axons of PGSNs enter the GI tract alongside the mesenteric arteries, ramify within the serosal surface and then penetrate through the intestinal wall, extending to the mucosa [34-37]. Many of these axons terminate within myenteric and submucosal ganglia where they exert inhibitory influence over the ENS to decrease GI motility and secretion [31]. PGSNs also innervate blood vessels and lymphatic vessels of the GI tract where they evoke vasoconstriction and regulate lymphatic drainage, respectively [38-42].

Postganglionic sympathetic varicosities can be found in close proximity to parenchymal immune cells located within every primary and secondary lymphoid structure of the body [5,43-45]. Ultrastructural studies on sympathetic fibres in lymphoid tissues suggest that sympathetic varicosities do not make traditional synaptic contacts with immune cells [3,5,46]. Instead, PGSNs release norepinephrine non-synaptically to diffuse upwards of 1 µm before interacting with local immune cells [46,47]. Sympathetic varicosities predominantly innervate areas rich in T cells, macrophages and plasma cells, though mast cells and eosinophils can also be found in proximity to noradrenergic fibres [6]. Developing or maturing B cells do not appear to receive significant sympathetic innervation [34,48].

Peyer’s patches are diffuse lymphoid structures located within the small intestine that consist of follicles of B cells covered by an apical dome region. A layer of specialized epithelium scattered with M cells and intraepithelial immune cells lines the luminal surface above each follicle [21]. Neighbouring follicles are separated by T cell-enriched interfollicular areas that extend from the base of the follicles to an apical interdomal region. Perivascular plexuses associated with the muscularis mucosae can be found along the basal surfaces of the Peyer’s patches and often extend radially through the interfollicular regions [6,34,49].

Sympathetic axons have been shown to project from these perivascular plexuses to innervate populations of T cells within the interfollicular areas, and T cells and plasma cells within the interdomal regions [6,34,49]. The GI tract also contains isolated immune cells that are scattered throughout the mucosa. Noradrenergic fibres that are not associated with blood vessels terminate in the colonic lamina propria among macrophages and T cells [6,50]. Postganglionic sympathetic axons also form dense plexuses within the GI crypts and adjacent to the basement membrane in close proximity to intraepithelial lymphocytes [4].

Mesenteric lymph nodes are encapsulated lymphoid structures that survey interstitial fluid collected from the GI tract for invading micro-organisms, antigen presenting dendritic cells and inflammatory mediators. Each mesenteric lymph node can be anatomically and functionally divided into an outer cortex, a paracortical region and an inner medulla [51]. Postganglionic sympathetic axons enter the lymph node through the hilus in association with blood vessels [48,52].  Perivascular plexuses containing noradrenergic fibres can be found throughout lymph nodes and a prominent network of sympathetic fibres exists beneath the capsule [6,48,53]. Postganglionic sympathetic varicosities are also observed outside the perivascular plexuses adjacent to T cells within the outer cortex and paracortical region [6,48,52].

Sympathetic regulation of GI immune cell function

Sympathetic varicosities innervating lymphoid tissues provide rapid, local release of norepinephrine to regulate parenchymal leukocyte function. Epinephrine and norepinephrine can also be secreted by ACCs into the systemic circulation to interact with circulating and resident immune cells. Catecholamines provide complex regulation of diverse immune cell functions, including cell trafficking, proliferation, differentiation and activation [3,4]. Catecholamines exert their immunomodulatory effects through the activation of adrenoceptors expressed by immune cells and accessory lymphoid structures. Functional adrenoceptor expression has been observed in several immune cell types. Beta-adrenoceptor expression has been described in macrophages, dendritic cells, naïve T cells, cytotoxic T cells, Th1 T helper cells, natural killer (NK) cells, B cells, neutrophils and eosinophils [54-65]. Beta-adrenoceptor activation enhances anti-inflammatory cytokine secretion, inhibits cellular immunity and reduces the release of proinflammatory cytokines [3]. Alpha-adrenoceptors are also expressed by certain classes of immune cells, including macrophages which express alpha2-adrenoceptors [66], and NK cells and dendritic cells which express both alpha1- and alpha2-adrenoceptors [55,56,61,67].

Although catecholamines can either enhance or inhibit inflammatory processes, the SNS is generally thought to provide anti-inflammatory effects through the predominant activation of beta-adrenoceptors [3,68]. The anti-inflammatory nature of sympathetic neurotransmitters is particularly true for systemic catecholamines secreted by ACCs. For example, co-incubation of human whole blood samples with epinephrine and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) enhances anti-inflammatory IL-10 secretion and inhibits proinflammatory tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha secretion [69,70]. Whole blood samples taken from individuals with high epinephrine secretion at rest exhibit increased IL-10, and decreased TNF-alpha and IL-12 secretion following LPS treatment ex vivo compared to blood samples taken from individuals with lower circulating epinephrine levels [71]. Circulating catecholamines can also enhance IL-10 secretion and reduce serum TNF-alpha concentrations during aberrant systemic inflammatory conditions, such as sepsis [69,72].

The sympathetic regulation of GI immunity has not been extensively studied to date. As a result, the effects of catecholamines on GI immune cells are often inferred from studies on similar populations of immune cells located within other regions of the body. It is important to note however that certain classes of immune cells found within the GI tract exhibit unique characteristics [22,25,26]. Consequently, the sympathetic regulation of immune cell function may be slightly modified within the GI tract.

Circulating monocytes can enter the GI tract through local blood vessels and subsequently differentiate into macrophages [23,73,74]. Macrophages are professional antigen presenting cells that protect the GI tract from invading micro-organisms, remove cellular debris and promote tissue repair [23]. Norepinephrine enhances monocyte and macrophage migration in vitro through the activation of beta-adrenoceptors [75]. As a result, it has been suggested that norepinephrine may act as a chemoattractant to recruit monocytes into the tissue and bring macrophages in close proximity with sympathetic varicosities [75]. Locally released norepinephrine can also modulate macrophage activation and cytokine secretion within the GI tract.

For example, treatment of isolated peritoneal macrophages with beta-adrenoceptor agonists in vitro results in decreased TNF-alpha secretion and increased IL-10 release in response to stimulation with LPS [76-80]. Activation of beta-adrenoceptors also inhibits phagocytosis and decreases nitric oxide production in peritoneal macrophages [58,76,81]. Conversely, activation of alpha2-adrenoceptors enhances LPS-induced TNF-alpha production and inhibits IL-10 release in peritoneal macrophages in vitro [66,78]. The balance between alpha- and beta-adrenoceptor activation on resident macrophages may therefore play an important role in shaping GI inflammation.

Immature dendritic cells take up antigen within the GI lamina propria, present the antigen to T cells and help coordinate the ensuing immune response [24]. Immature dendritic cells are also found in the epidermis of the skin where they provide similar responses to antigen challenge. Topical application of an alpha1-adrenoceptor antagonist to the surface of the skin has been shown to decrease the migration of dendritic cells to regional lymph nodes and reduce contact hypersensitivity responses [67]. In contrast, topical application of a beta2-adrenoceptor antagonist was found to have the opposite effect [56]. Stimulation of beta-adrenoceptors expressed by epidermal dendritic cells has also been shown to inhibit antigen presentation in vitro [55].

Adoptive transfer of bone marrow derived dendritic cells treated with norepinephrine promotes the induction of Th2 T helper cell-mediated responses, while ganglionic blockade with pentolinium enhances Th1 cytokine secretion [82]. Given that Th2 cytokines promote oral tolerance, it is not surprising that oral administration of a beta-adrenoceptor agonist was found to induce tolerance toward a previously immunized antigen [83]. Catecholamines have also been shown to regulate TNF-alpha, IL-23, IL-12 and IL-6 production in human cord-derived dendritic cells following LPS challenge [84].

T helper cells coordinate adaptive immune responses by modulating cytotoxic T cell, leukocyte and B cell activities. Evidence suggests that catecholamines acting on T helper cell populations provide anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting Th1 T helper cell-mediated cellular immunity and promoting Th2 T helper cell-mediated humoral immunity [3]. For example, beta2-adrenoceptor activation inhibits T cell proliferation, decreases naïve T cell differentiation into Th1 T helper cells and reduces the secretion of proinflammatory Th1 cytokines, including IL-2 and IFN-gamma [59,63,85,86]. Given that Th1 cytokines inhibit Th2 type responses, catecholamines acting on beta2-adrenoceptors can indirectly enhance the secretion of anti-inflammatory Th2 cytokines, including IL-10, despite the fact that adrenoceptors are not expressed by Th2 T helper cells [59,63,87].

GI immune cells appear to favour Th2 cytokine profiles [25,26]. It is therefore possible that the SNS may help maintain the Th1:Th2 cytokine balance within the GI tract in conditions that would otherwise skew the balance toward Th1 T helper cell activation. Locally released norepinephrine may also regulate T lymphocyte trafficking within the GALT, as sympathetic nerve ablation with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) was found to decrease the migration of adoptively transferred T lymphocytes to the mesenteric lymph nodes and Peyer’s patches, and reduce the mucosal response to luminal antigen challenge [88]. It is important to mention, however that chemical sympathectomy has been shown to enhance catecholamine secretion from the adrenal medulla [89,90]. Therefore, elevated systemic catecholamine concentrations may continue to provide anti-inflammatory effects to circulating and resident immune cells.

In addition to catecholamines, evidence also supports an important role for the sympathetic co-transmitters, NPY and ATP, or a related purine, in the modulation of immune cell function. Several classes of immune cells bear functional NPY receptors, primarily belonging to the Y1 and Y5 subtypes [91-93]. NPY signaling has largely been shown to suppress the immune response through inhibition of proinflammatory cytokine release and immune cell activity [75,94-97]. In addition, NPY co-released with norepinephrine in lymphoid tissues can potentiate catecholamine-mediated immunomodulatory effects. For example, NPY co-administered with norepinephrine significantly reduced IL-6 release from splenic macrophages compared to when either transmitter was given alone [98]. ATP also exerts potent immunomodulatory effects that can vary depending upon the type of receptor that is activated [99,100]. Stimulation of metabotropic P2Y11 purinoceptors on macrophages favours the release of anti-inflammatory IL-10, whereas ATP binding to ligand-gated P2X7 receptors enhances proinflammatory cytokine production but can also cause leukocyte apoptosis [101-104]. ATP secreted by postganglionic sympathetic varicosities is rapidly catabolized to the purine nucleoside adenosine, which has been shown to inhibit inflammatory responses by decreasing complement protein activation, leukocyte migration and superoxide anion production in neutrophils [105-109].

Although ACCs and PGSNs can rapidly release catecholamines, NPY and ATP in response to stimulation, the SNS is not the only cellular source of these chemical mediators. For example, certain classes of immune cells, including macrophages, T cells and B cells have been shown to take up, synthesize, store and secrete catecholamines [80,110-114]. Immune cells, vascular endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells can also release NPY and ATP into the extracellular environment [115-117]. Within the GI tract, enteric secretomotor neurons have been shown to synthesize NPY and recent evidence suggests that the enteric microbiota is a prominent source of ATP [118-121].

The role of the SNS during inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, is a chronic pathological condition characterized by relapsing and remitting inflammation of the GI tract. Patients with active Crohn’s disease exhibit transmural, discontinuous inflammatory lesions that can affect any region of the GI tract [122]. In contrast, patients with ulcerative colitis exhibit mucosal inflammation that is often localized to the colon [123]. Although it is generally well-accepted that IBD results from an exaggerated immune response in a genetically susceptible host, the precise etiology of IBD remains elusive [124-127].

Animal models that reflect aspects of IBD in human patients are routinely used to investigate the causes and consequences of pathological GI inflammation. Dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) is a water-soluble glucose polymer that can be administered to animals through their drinking water over acute or chronic regimens to induce mucosal inflammation of the colon [128,129]. DSS disrupts the structural integrity of the mucosal barrier, exposing components of the mucosal immune system to luminal antigens and triggering a mixed Th1/Th2 inflammatory response [128,130]. 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) and 2,4-dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (DNBS) are hapten molecules that can be administered to the GI lumen to produce a predominantly Th1 T cell-mediated inflammatory response which affects the full thickness of the intestinal wall [128,130,131]. IL-10-/- mice, adoptive transfer of specific immune cell subsets to irradiated hosts, certain strains of bacteria and GI parasites can also be used to study GI inflammation.

IBD and animal models of GI inflammation are characterized by aberrant innate and adaptive immune responses [124]. During IBD, there is massive infiltration of immune cells into the intestinal wall, including neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells and lymphocytes [132,133]. Large amounts of proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-alpha, are often released within inflamed regions of the GI tract and can spill over into the systemic circulation [12,134-137]. Antibodies that neutralize the activity of TNF-alpha have proven to be a promising treatment for patients with IBD, suggesting that TNF-alpha plays a central role in IBD pathogenesis [127]. In contrast, IL-10 is a potent anti-inflammatory cytokine that limits GI inflammation and protects against the development of IBD [138,139].

Sympathetic neurotransmitters have been shown to alter the functional properties of several classes of immune cells implicated in the pathogenesis of IBD, and they can also regulate TNF-alpha and IL-10 secretion. Furthermore, stress, which contains a large sympathetic component, can affect disease severity and has been associated with the reactivation of GI inflammation [140-144]. It is therefore likely that the SNS plays an important role during IBD. However, only a few studies have directly investigated the sympathetic regulation of IBD pathogenesis. In many of these studies, SNS function was altered using techniques such as chemical sympathectomy with 6-OHDA or the systemic administration of adrenergic agents, both of which can affect sympathetic neurons located throughout the body and not just those innervating the GI tract. As a result, our knowledge concerning the role of specific populations of sympathetic neurons or distinct sympathetically innervated target tissues during IBD is limited.

In human patients, studies assessing the sympathetic regulation of IBD pathogenesis are restricted to ulcerative colitis. In this patient population, intrarectal administration of lidocaine, a non-specific inhibitor of neuronal signaling, was found to enhance patient well-being, and improve endoscopic and histological measures of disease severity [145]. Although this study did not determine the specific population of neurons responsible for the improved outcome, it demonstrated that components of the peripheral nervous system could modulate pathological GI inflammation. Sympathetic varicosities express alpha2-adrenoceptors, which can be activated by secreted norepinephrine in an autocrine fashion to limit further catecholamine secretion.

Administration of clonidine, an alpha2-adrenoceptor agonist, to decrease sympathetic activation and norepinephrine secretion was found to reduce clinical symptoms and improve the endoscopic appearance of the colon in patients with active ulcerative colitis [146,147]. The anti-inflammatory effects of clonidine may have also resulted from inhibition of alpha2-adrenoceptors expressed by GI macrophages. Given that Crohn’s disease is characterized by a predominantly Th1 T helper cell-mediated inflammatory response, it is possible that sympathetic neurotransmitters may improve disease outcomes by favouring Th2 cytokine secretion [27,28,148]. However, this theory remains to be directly tested.

The role of the SNS during experimental colitis varies depending upon the model of IBD used, the time at which SNS function is manipulated and the type of adrenoceptor that is primarily affected. For example, sympathetic nerve ablation with 6-OHDA prior to the induction of TNBS colitis was found to improve macroscopic damage scores [149]. Similarly, in the acute model of DSS-induced colitis, chemical sympathectomy improved histological scores and limited inflammatory reduction of colon length when performed prior to the initiation of inflammation [132]. In contrast, sympathetic nerve ablation performed during the chronic phase of colitis in IL-10-/- mice exacerbated colonic inflammation as exemplified by higher histological scores and enhanced colonic TNF-alpha mRNA expression [132].

In addition, using the chronic model of DSS-induced colitis, loss of sympathetic innervation 20 days after the last cycle of DSS administration resulted in elevated histological scores, enhanced inflammation-induced shortening of the colon, increased IL-6 and IFN-gamma secretion from mesenteric lymph nodes, and upregulation of colonic TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma mRNA expression [132]. These results suggest that during the initial stages of inflammation, the SNS exacerbates the inflammatory response, whereas at more chronic time points, sympathetic inputs improve disease severity.

Sympathetic neurotransmitters have been shown to regulate dendritic cell migration to regional lymph nodes during inflammatory responses and increase the number of circulating NK cells [56,67,150,151]. Catecholamines can also act as chemoattractants for monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells, and may indirectly enhance neutrophil infiltration through elevated systemic IL-8 secretion [67,75,152,153]. During the early stages of experimental models of IBD, the SNS may therefore enhance inflammation by increasing immune cell infiltration into the inflamed intestine and promoting antigen presentation within the mesenteric lymph nodes. In contrast, during established GI inflammation, catecholamine-induced inhibition of TNF-alpha secretion and increased production of Th2 cytokines may limit the inflammatory response. The sympathetic regulation of GI blood flow and lymphatic drainage may also provide beneficial effects [38,40,154]. Furthermore, sympathetic neurotransmitters have been shown to promote epithelial cell proliferation, which may accelerate tissue repair during established inflammation [155]. A similar time dependent effect of the sympathetic modulation of inflammation has been described during joint inflammation [156].

Oral administration of a selective beta3-adrenoceptor agonist throughout the course of DNBS colitis in rats was found to improve macroscopic and histological scores, reduce myeloperoxidase activity and decrease proinflammatory cytokine production within the colon, including TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6 [12]. These results suggest that beta3-adrenoceptors may play a beneficial role in modulating the inflammatory response during colitis. However, within the GI tract, beta3-adrenoceptors are largely expressed by circular smooth muscle cells, myenteric neurons and vascular smooth muscle cells [12]. Consequently, the protection conferred by beta3-adrenoceptor activation may also be mediated by changes in GI motility and blood flow [157]. A similar protective effect of beta3-adrenoceptor agonists has been observed in models of gastric ulceration, where altered blood flow and motility were found to improve ulcer severity scores [158,159].

During both TNBS and acute DSS colitis, daily intraperitoneal injection of an alpha2-adrenoceptor antagonist was found to decrease histological severity, reduce myeloperoxidase activity, and inhibit TNF-alpha and IL-1beta production in the colon [160]. Macrophages have been shown to express functional alpha2-adrenoceptors, which promote the secretion of TNF-alpha and inhibit the release of IL-10 in response to LPS stimulation [66,78]. During this study, improved disease severity during acute DSS and TNBS colitis was largely attributed to inhibition of alpha2-adrenoceptors within these macrophage populations. However, it is important to note that alpha2-adrenoceptor antagonists would also act presynaptically on sympathetic varicosities to enhance catecholamine secretion and increase the amount of norepinephrine available to activate anti-inflammatory beta-adrenoceptors expressed by local immune cells. Enhanced norepinephrine secretion may also improve the blood supply, increase lymphatic drainage and promote mucosal repair.

Altered sympathetic neurophysiology during inflammatory bowel disease

During IBD and experimental models of GI inflammation, elevated tissue and serum levels of inflammatory mediators may interact with extrinsic and intrinsic neuronal populations innervating the GI tract to alter their structure and function. Clinical manifestations of IBD include abdominal pain, diarrhea and microvascular dysfunction, supporting the possibility that aberrant neuronal function may contribute to symptom generation [38,125,161-164]. Indeed, GI inflammation has been shown to alter enteric, sensory and sympathetic neurophysiology. For example, the TNBS and Citrobacter rodentium models of colitis have been shown to enhance the intrinsic excitability of colonic projecting sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) [165-168].

In addition, hyperexcitability and synaptic facilitation have been observed in myenteric and submucosal neurons during TNBS-induced colitis [169-171]. However, enteric neuronal cell death has also been described during animal models of IBD, which may limit the regulatory capabilities of the ENS within affected regions of the GI tract [172,173]. Many of the inflammation-induced alterations in enteric and sensory neuron function persist after microscopically or biochemically detectable inflammation has resolved [168,174,175]. As a result, neural mechanisms may contribute to the persistent dysfunction that is observed following the resolution of inflammation, particularly in patients with post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome [176].

Using non-invasive measurements of SNS function, including power spectral analysis of heart rate variability and muscle sympathetic nerve recordings, patients with active ulcerative colitis were shown to exhibit enhanced SNS activity at rest [146,177,178]. Increased sympathetic activity has also been described in IBD patients in clinical remission, suggesting that sympathetic nerve dysfunction persist in the absence of active disease [179]. Patients with ulcerative colitis also exhibit enhanced sympathetic innervation of the rectal mucosa and mesenteric arteries [145,180,181]. Early electron microscopic studies on ileal specimens from Crohn’s disease patients revealed both proliferation of autonomic axons as well as severe axonal necrosis [182,183]. Using more specific immunohistochemical techniques, investigators found that sympathetic innervation of the colon is decreased during Crohn’s disease [132]. In support of this finding, colonic mucosal norepinephrine concentrations were found to be reduced in Crohn’s disease patients compared to healthy controls [184]. However, Crohn’s disease patients exhibit an increased number of myenteric neurons expressing tyrosine hydroxylase, the rate limiting enzyme in catecholamine synthesis [185]. In addition, sympathetic innervation of the mesenteric arteries is enhanced during Crohn’s disease [181].

Alterations in SNS structure and function have also been observed during experimental models of IBD. For example, a significant loss of sympathetic fibres has been described within the colons of mice during chronic DSS colitis [186]. In contrast, TNBS colitis does not appear to affect the sympathetic innervation of colonic submucosal arterioles [38]. During TNBS-induced ileitis, PGSNs of the celiac ganglion exhibit enhanced excitability [187]. However, inhibition of norepinephrine secretion from PGSNs innervating the GI tract is a common feature of the TNBS, DNBS, Trichinella spiralis and acute DSS models of inflammation [7-11]. A reduction in N-type voltage-gated Ca2+ current has been described in PGSNs of the superior mesenteric ganglion during acute DSS colitis, suggesting that impaired Ca2+ signaling may contribute to the decreased norepinephrine secretion that is observed [7]. Upregulation of presynaptic alpha2-adrenoceptors may also play a role in inflammation-induced inhibition of norepinephrine secretion [11].

Decreased norepinephrine secretion occurs in PGSNs innervating both inflamed and uninflamed regions of the GI tract [7-9,11]. Given that local and systemic concentrations of inflammatory mediators are elevated during GI inflammation, it is possible that cytokines may promote aberrant SNS function. Overnight incubation of PGSNs of the superior mesenteric ganglion in TNF-alpha produced a similar inhibition of N-type voltage-gated Ca2+ current as acute DSS colitis [188]. In addition, TNF-alpha was found to reduce stimulus-induced norepinephrine secretion from postganglionic sympathetic varicosities innervating jejunal longitudinal smooth muscle-myenteric plexus preparations [189]. IL-1beta, IL-6 and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) have also been shown to decrease norepinephrine release within the GI tract, further supporting a role for inflammatory mediators in the modulation of sympathetic activity during GI inflammation [190-193].

Evidence suggests that alterations in adrenoceptor expression and activation may favour a proinflammatory role for sympathetic neurotransmitters within the GI tract during experimental models of IBD. Alpha-adrenoceptors have a higher affinity for norepinephrine than beta-adrenoceptors. Therefore, decreased local norepinephrine concentrations may promote the preferential activation of proinflammatory alpha-adrenoceptors during GI inflammation. In addition, GI inflammation has been shown to increase alpha-adrenoceptor expression and downregulate beta-adrenoceptor expression. For example, TNBS jejunitis was found to upregulate alpha1- and alpha2-adrenoceptor expression and decrease beta-adrenoceptor availability in guinea pig smooth muscle-myenteric plexus preparations [13].

Similarly, during DNBS colitis in rats, alpha2-adrenoceptor expression is upregulated within the muscular layers of inflamed colon and un-inflamed ileum, while beta3-adrenoceptor expression is reduced within the inflamed colonic mucosa and submucosa [11,12]. In addition, beta3-adrenoceptor-mediated inhibition of colonic circular smooth muscle contraction is reduced during TNBS colitis in rats [163]. Although it is unclear whether similar alterations in adrenoceptor expression and function occur in GI immune cells, decreased beta- and enhanced alpha-adrenoceptor expression would be expected to promote inflammation by reducing IL-10 and enhancing TNF-alpha secretion from GI macrophages, and limiting the suppressive effects of catecholamines on Th1 type responses.

Conclusions

GI immune homeostasis is essential for appropriate GI function and requires complex interactions between immune cells, accessory lymphoid structures and modulatory inputs, including the SNS. PGSNs innervating the GALT may provide moment-to-moment regulation of GI immune cell function. Through alterations in immune cell trafficking, proliferation, differentiation and activation, the SNS can both enhance and inhibit protective and pathological inflammatory responses.

The outcome of sympathetic activation during inflammation likely depends on the type of adrenoceptor activated, the nature of the inflammatory stimulus and the classes of immune cells that are involved. Studies assessing sympathetic neuro-immune interactions during IBD and experimental models of GI inflammation are often confounded by adrenergic effects on non-immune structures, including vascular smooth muscle cells, epithelial cells, enteric neurons and GI smooth muscle cells. Future investigations focusing on the direct sympathetic modulation of immune cell function during IBD are warranted. Alterations in immune cell adrenoceptor expression and the sympathetic innervation of the GALT during IBD should also be examined.

Nonstandard Abbreviations: Adenosine triphosphate (ATP); adrenal chromaffin cell (ACC); dextran sulfate sodium (DSS); 2,4-dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (DNBS); enteric nervous system (ENS); gastrointestinal (GI); gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT); 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA); interferon (IFN); interleukin (IL); lipopolysaccharide (LPS); major histocompatibility complex (MHC); neuropeptide Y (NPY); postganglionic sympathetic neuron (PGSN); prostaglandin (PG); sympathetic nervous system (SNS); 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS); tumour necrosis factor (TNF)

Author(s) Affiliation

MK Lukewich & AL Cervi – Department of Physiology; Gastrointestinal Diseases Research Unit and Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
AE Lomax – Department of Physiology and Department of Medicine; Gastrointestinal Diseases Research Unit and Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada

References
  1. Brock JA, Cunnane TC. Effects of Ca2+ concentration and Ca2+ channel blockers on noradrenaline release and purinergic neuroeffector transmission in rat tail artery. Br J Pharmacol 1999; 126(1): 11-8.
  2. Winkler H, Sietzen M, Schober M. The life cycle of catecholamine-storing vesicles. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1987; 493: 3-19.
  3. Elenkov IJ, Wilder RL, Chrousos GP, Vizi ES. The sympathetic nerve–an integrative interface between two supersystems: the brain and the immune system. Pharmacol Rev 2000; 52(4): 595-638.
  4. Bellinger DL, Millar BA, Perez S, Carter J, Wood C, Thyagarajan S et al. Sympathetic modulation of immunity: relevance to disease. Cell Immunol 2008; 252(1-2): 27-56.
  5. Nance DM, Sanders VM. Autonomic innervation and regulation of the immune system (1987-2007). Brain Behav Immun 2007; 21(6): 736-45.
  6. Felten DL, Felten SY, Carlson SL, Olschowka JA, Livnat S. Noradrenergic and peptidergic innervation of lymphoid tissue. J Immunol 1985; 135(2 Suppl): 755s-65s.
  7. Motagally MA, Neshat S, Lomax AE. Inhibition of sympathetic N-type voltage-gated Ca2+ current underlies the reduction in norepinephrine release during colitis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2009; 296(5): G1077-G1084.
  8. Jacobson K, McHugh K, Collins SM. Experimental colitis alters myenteric nerve function at inflamed and noninflamed sites in the rat. Gastroenterology 1995; 109(3): 718-22.
  9. Jacobson K, McHugh K, Collins SM. The mechanism of altered neural function in a rat model of acute colitis. Gastroenterology 1997; 112(1): 156-62.
  10. Swain MG, Blennerhassett PA, Collins SM. Impaired sympathetic nerve function in the inflamed rat intestine. Gastroenterology 1991; 100(3): 675-82.
  11. Blandizzi C, Fornai M, Colucci R, Baschiera F, Barbara G, de GR et al. Altered prejunctional modulation of intestinal cholinergic and noradrenergic pathways by alpha2-adrenoceptors in the presence of experimental colitis. Br J Pharmacol 2003; 139(2): 309-20.
  12. Vasina V, Abu-Gharbieh E, Barbara G, de GR, Colucci R, Blandizzi C et al. The beta3-adrenoceptor agonist SR58611A ameliorates experimental colitis in rats. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2008; 20(9): 1030-41.
  13. Martinolle JP, More J, Dubech N, Garcia-Villar R. Inverse regulation of alpha- and beta-adrenoceptors during trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNB)-induced inflammation in guinea-pig small intestine. Life Sci 1993; 52(18): 1499-508.
  14. Savage DC. Microbial ecology of the gastrointestinal tract. Annu Rev Microbiol 1977; 31: 107-33.
  15. Hooper LV, Midtvedt T, Gordon JI. How host-microbial interactions shape the nutrient environment of the mammalian intestine. Annu Rev Nutr 2002; 22: 283-307.
  16. Jones SE, Versalovic J. Probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri biofilms produce antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory factors. BMC Microbiol 2009; 9: 35.
  17. Rhee KJ, Sethupathi P, Driks A, Lanning DK, Knight KL. Role of commensal bacteria in development of gut-associated lymphoid tissues and preimmune antibody repertoire. J Immunol 2004; 172(2): 1118-24.
  18. Macpherson AJ, Harris NL. Interactions between commensal intestinal bacteria and the immune system. Nat Rev Immunol 2004; 4(6): 478-85.
  19. Spinler JK, Taweechotipatr M, Rognerud CL, Ou CN, Tumwasorn S, Versalovic J. Human-derived probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri demonstrate antimicrobial activities targeting diverse enteric bacterial pathogens. Anaerobe 2008; 14(3): 166-71.
  20. Pamer EG. Immune responses to commensal and environmental microbes. Nat Immunol 2007; 8(11): 1173-8.
  21. Mowat AM. Anatomical basis of tolerance and immunity to intestinal antigens. Nat Rev Immunol 2003; 3(4): 331-41.
  22. Smythies LE, Sellers M, Clements RH, Mosteller-Barnum M, Meng G, Benjamin WH et al. Human intestinal macrophages display profound inflammatory anergy despite avid phagocytic and bacteriocidal activity. J Clin Invest 2005; 115(1): 66-75.
  23. Smith PD, Ochsenbauer-Jambor C, Smythies LE. Intestinal macrophages: unique effector cells of the innate immune system. Immunol Rev 2005; 206: 149-59.
  24. Stagg AJ, Hart AL, Knight SC, Kamm MA. The dendritic cell: its role in intestinal inflammation and relationship with gut bacteria. Gut 2003; 52(10): 1522-9.
  25. Iwasaki A, Kelsall BL. Freshly isolated Peyer”s patch, but not spleen, dendritic cells produce interleukin 10 and induce the differentiation of T helper type 2 cells. J Exp Med 1999; 190(2): 229-39.
  26. Williamson E, Bilsborough JM, Viney JL. Regulation of mucosal dendritic cell function by receptor activator of NF-kappa B (RANK)/RANK ligand interactions: impact on tolerance induction. J Immunol 2002; 169(7): 3606-12.
  27. Parronchi P, Romagnani P, Annunziato F, Sampognaro S, Becchio A, Giannarini L et al. Type 1 T-helper cell predominance and interleukin-12 expression in the gut of patients with Crohn”s disease. Am J Pathol 1997; 150(3): 823-32.
  28. Niessner M, Volk BA. Altered Th1/Th2 cytokine profiles in the intestinal mucosa of patients with inflammatory bowel disease as assessed by quantitative reversed transcribed polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Clin Exp Immunol 1995; 101(3): 428-35.
  29. Banchereau J, Steinman RM. Dendritic cells and the control of immunity. Nature 1998; 392(6673): 245-52.
  30. Varol C, Zigmond E, Jung S. Securing the immune tightrope: mononuclear phagocytes in the intestinal lamina propria. Nat Rev Immunol 2010; 10(6): 415-26.
  31. Furness JB. The Enteric Nervous System. Massachusetts, USA: Blackwell Publishing, Inc. 2006.
  32. Szurszewski JH. Physiology of mammalian prevertebral ganglia. Annu Rev Physiol 1981; 43: 53-68.
  33. Miolan JP, Niel JP. The mammalian sympathetic prevertebral ganglia: integrative properties and role in the nervous control of digestive tract motility. J Auton Nerv Syst 1996; 58(3): 125-38.
  34. Felten DL, Overhage JM, Felten SY, Schmedtje JF. Noradrenergic sympathetic innervation of lymphoid tissue in the rabbit appendix: further evidence for a link between the nervous and immune systems. Brain Res Bull 1981; 7(5): 595-612.
  35. Jacobowitz D. Histochemical studies of the autonomic innervation of the gut. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1965; 149(3): 358-64.
  36. Furness JB, Costa M. The adrenergic innervation of the gastrointestinal tract. Ergeb Physiol 1974; 69(0): 2-51.
  37. Straub RH, Wiest R, Strauch UG, Harle P, Scholmerich J. The role of the sympathetic nervous system in intestinal inflammation. Gut 2006; 55(11): 1640-9.
  38. Lomax AE, O”Reilly M, Neshat S, Vanner SJ. Sympathetic vasoconstrictor regulation of mouse colonic submucosal arterioles is altered in experimental colitis. J Physiol 2007; 583(Pt 2): 719-30.
  39. McGeown JG, McHale NG, Thornbury KD. The effect of electrical stimulation of the sympathetic chain on peripheral lymph flow in the anaesthetized sheep. J Physiol 1987; 393: 123-33.
  40. Ohhashi T, Azuma T. Sympathetic effects on spontaneous activity in bovine mesenteric lymphatics. Am J Physiol 1984; 247(4 Pt 2): H610-H615.
  41. Allen JM, McCarron JG, McHale NG, Thornbury KD. Release of [3H]-noradrenaline from the sympathetic nerves to bovine mesenteric lymphatic vessels and its modification by alpha-agonists and antagonists. Br J Pharmacol 1988; 94(3): 823-33.
  42. Park J, Galligan JJ, Fink GD, Swain GM. Alterations in sympathetic neuroeffector transmission to mesenteric arteries but not veins in DOCA-salt hypertension. Auton Neurosci 2010; 152(1-2): 11-20.
  43. Bulloch K, Pomerantz W. Autonomic nervous system innervation of thymic-related lymphoid tissue in wildtype and nude mice. J Comp Neurol 1984; 228(1): 57-68.
  44. Nance DM, Burns J. Innervation of the spleen in the rat: evidence for absence of afferent innervation. Brain Behav Immun 1989; 3(4): 281-90.
  45. Romeo HE, Fink T, Yanaihara N, Weihe E. Distribution and relative proportions of neuropeptide Y- and proenkephalin-containing noradrenergic neurones in rat superior cervical ganglion: separate projections to submaxillary lymph nodes. Peptides 1994; 15(8): 1479-87.
  46. Vizi ES, Elenkov IJ. Nonsynaptic noradrenaline release in neuro-immune responses. Acta Biol Hung 2002; 53(1-2): 229-44.
  47. Ross G. The regional circulation. Annu Rev Physiol 1971; 33: 445-78.
  48. Felten DL, Livnat S, Felten SY, Carlson SL, Bellinger DL, Yeh P. Sympathetic innervation of lymph nodes in mice. Brain Res Bull 1984; 13(6): 693-9.
  49. Kulkarni-Narla A, Beitz AJ, Brown DR. Catecholaminergic, cholinergic and peptidergic innervation of gut-associated lymphoid tissue in porcine jejunum and ileum. Cell Tissue Res 1999; 298(2): 275-86.
  50. Madden KS, Sanders VM, Felten DL. Catecholamine influences and sympathetic neural modulation of immune responsiveness. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1995; 35: 417-48.
  51. Willard-Mack CL. Normal structure, function, and histology of lymph nodes. Toxicol Pathol 2006; 34(5): 409-24.
  52. Panuncio AL, De La Pena S, Gualco G, Reissenweber N. Adrenergic innervation in reactive human lymph nodes. J Anat 1999; 194 ( Pt 1): 143-6.
  53. Fink T, Weihe E. Multiple neuropeptides in nerves supplying mammalian lymph nodes: messenger candidates for sensory and autonomic neuroimmunomodulation? Neurosci Lett 1988; 90(1-2): 39-44.
  54. Plaut M. Lymphocyte hormone receptors. Annu Rev Immunol 1987; 5: 621-69.
  55. Seiffert K, Hosoi J, Torii H, Ozawa H, Ding W, Campton K et al. Catecholamines inhibit the antigen-presenting capability of epidermal Langerhans cells. J Immunol 2002; 168(12): 6128-35.
  56. Maestroni GJ, Mazzola P. Langerhans cells beta 2-adrenoceptors: role in migration, cytokine production, Th priming and contact hypersensitivity. J Neuroimmunol 2003; 144(1-2): 91-9.
  57. Swanson MA, Lee WT, Sanders VM. IFN-gamma production by Th1 cells generated from naive CD4+ T cells exposed to norepinephrine. J Immunol 2001; 166(1): 232-40.
  58. Abrass CK, O”Connor SW, Scarpace PJ, Abrass IB. Characterization of the beta-adrenergic receptor of the rat peritoneal macrophage. J Immunol 1985; 135(2): 1338-41.
  59. Sanders VM, Baker RA, Ramer-Quinn DS, Kasprowicz DJ, Fuchs BA, Street NE. Differential expression of the beta2-adrenergic receptor by Th1 and Th2 clones: implications for cytokine production and B cell help. J Immunol 1997; 158(9): 4200-10.
  60. Genaro AM, Borda E. Alloimmunization-induced changes in beta-adrenoceptor expression and cAMP on B lymphocytes. Immunopharmacology 1989; 18(1): 63-70.
  61. Jetschmann JU, Benschop RJ, Jacobs R, Kemper A, Oberbeck R, Schmidt RE, Schedlowski M. Expression and in-vivo modulation of alpha- and beta-adrenoceptors on human natural killer (CD16+) cells. J Neuroimmunol 1997; 74(1-2): 159-64.
  62. Khan MM, Sansoni P, Silverman ED, Engleman EG, Melmon KL. Beta-adrenergic receptors on human suppressor, helper, and cytolytic lymphocytes. Biochem Pharmacol 1986; 35(7): 1137-42.
  63. Ramer-Quinn DS, Baker RA, Sanders VM. Activated T helper 1 and T helper 2 cells differentially express the beta-2-adrenergic receptor: a mechanism for selective modulation of T helper 1 cell cytokine production. J Immunol 1997; 159(10): 4857-67.
  64. Gurguis GN, Vo SP, Griffith JM, Rush AJ. Neutrophil beta(2)-adrenoceptor function in major depression: G(s) coupling, effects of imipramine and relationship to treatment outcome. Eur J Pharmacol 1999; 386(2-3): 135-44.
  65. Yukawa T, Ukena D, Kroegel C, Chanez P, Dent G, Chung KF, Barnes PJ. Beta 2-adrenergic receptors on eosinophils. Binding and functional studies. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141(6): 1446-52.
  66. Spengler RN, Allen RM, Remick DG, Strieter RM, Kunkel SL. Stimulation of alpha-adrenergic receptor augments the production of macrophage-derived tumor necrosis factor. J Immunol 1990; 145(5): 1430-4.
  67. Maestroni GJ. Dendritic cell migration controlled by alpha 1b-adrenergic receptors. J Immunol 2000; 165(12): 6743-7.
  68. Kin NW, Sanders VM. It takes nerve to tell T and B cells what to do. J Leukoc Biol 2006; 79(6): 1093-104.
  69. van der Poll T, Coyle SM, Barbosa K, Braxton CC, Lowry SF. Epinephrine inhibits tumor necrosis factor-alpha and potentiates interleukin 10 production during human endotoxemia. J Clin Invest 1996; 97(3): 713-9.
  70. Severn A, Rapson NT, Hunter CA, Liew FY. Regulation of tumor necrosis factor production by adrenaline and beta-adrenergic agonists. J Immunol 1992; 148(11): 3441-5.
  71. Elenkov IJ, Kvetnansky R, Hashiramoto A, Bakalov VK, Link AA, Zachman K et al. Low- versus high-baseline epinephrine output shapes opposite innate cytokine profiles: presence of Lewis- and Fischer-like neurohormonal immune phenotypes in humans? J Immunol 2008; 181(3): 1737-45.
  72. Elenkov IJ, Hasko G, Kovacs KJ, Vizi ES. Modulation of lipopolysaccharide-induced tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by selective alpha- and beta-adrenergic drugs in mice. J Neuroimmunol 1995; 61(2): 123-31.
  73. Grimm MC, Pullman WE, Bennett GM, Sullivan PJ, Pavli P, Doe WF. Direct evidence of monocyte recruitment to inflammatory bowel disease mucosa. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1995; 10(4): 387-95.
  74. Geissmann F, Manz MG, Jung S, Sieweke MH, Merad M, Ley K. Development of monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Science 2010; 327(5966): 656-61.
  75. Straub RH, Mayer M, Kreutz M, Leeb S, Scholmerich J, Falk W. Neurotransmitters of the sympathetic nerve terminal are powerful chemoattractants for monocytes. J Leukoc Biol 2000; 67(4): 553-8.
  76. Zinyama RB, Bancroft GJ, Sigola LB. Adrenaline suppression of the macrophage nitric oxide response to lipopolysaccharide is associated with differential regulation of tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-10. Immunology 2001; 104(4): 439-46.
  77. Ignatowski TA, Spengler RN. Regulation of macrophage-derived tumor necrosis factor production by modification of adrenergic receptor sensitivity. J Neuroimmunol 1995; 61(1): 61-70.
  78. Ignatowski TA, Gallant S, Spengler RN. Temporal regulation by adrenergic receptor stimulation of macrophage (M phi)-derived tumor necrosis factor (TNF) production post-LPS challenge. J Neuroimmunol 1996; 65(2): 107-17.
  79. Suberville S, Bellocq A, Fouqueray B, Philippe C, Lantz O, Perez J, Baud L. Regulation of interleukin-10 production by beta-adrenergic agonists. Eur J Immunol 1996; 26(11): 2601-5.
  80. Spengler RN, Chensue SW, Giacherio DA, Blenk N, Kunkel SL. Endogenous norepinephrine regulates tumor necrosis factor-alpha production from macrophages in vitro. J Immunol 1994; 152(6): 3024-31.
  81. Sigola LB, Zinyama RB. Adrenaline inhibits macrophage nitric oxide production through beta1 and beta2 adrenergic receptors. Immunology 2000; 100(3): 359-63.
  82. Maestroni GJ. Short exposure of maturing, bone marrow-derived dendritic cells to norepinephrine: impact on kinetics of cytokine production and Th development. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 129(1-2): 106-14.
  83. Cobelens PM, Kavelaars A, Vroon A, Ringeling M, van der Zee R, van EW, Heijnen CJ. The beta 2-adrenergic agonist salbutamol potentiates oral induction of tolerance, suppressing adjuvant arthritis and antigen-specific immunity. J Immunol 2002; 169(9): 5028-35.
  84. Goyarts E, Matsui M, Mammone T, Bender AM, Wagner JA, Maes D, Granstein RD. Norepinephrine modulates human dendritic cell activation by altering cytokine release. Exp Dermatol 2008; 17(3): 188-96.
  85. Borger P, Hoekstra Y, Esselink MT, Postma DS, Zaagsma J, Vellenga E, Kauffman HF. Beta-adrenoceptor-mediated inhibition of IFN-gamma, IL-3, and GM-CSF mRNA accumulation in activated human T lymphocytes is solely mediated by the beta2-adrenoceptor subtype. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1998; 19(3): 400-7.
  86. Panina-Bordignon P, Mazzeo D, Lucia PD, D”Ambrosio D, Lang R, Fabbri L et al. Beta2-agonists prevent Th1 development by selective inhibition of interleukin 12. J Clin Invest 1997; 100(6): 1513-9.
  87. Mosmann TR, Schumacher JH, Street NF, Budd R, O”Garra A, Fong TA et al. Diversity of cytokine synthesis and function of mouse CD4+ T cells. Immunol Rev 1991; 123: 209-29.
  88. Gonzalez-Ariki S, Husband AJ. The role of sympathetic innervation of the gut in regulating mucosal immune responses. Brain Behav Immun 1998; 12(1): 53-63.
  89. Porlier GA, Nadeau RA, De CJ, Bichet DG. Increased circulating plasma catecholamines and plasma renin activity in dogs after chemical sympathectomy with 6-hydroxydopamine. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1977; 55(3): 724-33.
  90. Kolibal-Pegher S, Edwards DJ, Meyers-Schoy SA, Vollmer RR. Adrenal medullary adaptations and cardiovascular regulation after 6-hydroxydopamine treatment in rats. J Auton Nerv Syst 1994; 48(2): 113-20.
  91. Petito JM, Huang Z, McCarthy DB. Molecular cloning of NPY-Y1 receptor cDNA from rat splenic lymphocytes: evidence of low levels of mRNA expression and [125I]NPY binding sites. J Neuroimmunol 1994; 54: 81-6.
  92. Bedoui S, Lechner S, Gebhardt T, Nave H, Beck-Sickinger AG, Straub RH et al. NPY modulates epinephrine-induced leukocytosis via Y-1 and Y-5 receptor activation in vivo: sympathetic co-transmission during leukocyte mobilization. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 132(1-2): 25-33.
  93. Dimitrijevic M, Stanojevic S, Vujic V, Kovacevic-Jovanovic B. Effect of neuropeptide Y on inflammatory paw edema in the rat: involvement of peripheral NPY Y1 and Y5 receptors and interaction with dipeptidyl-peptidase IV (CD26). J Neuroimmunol 2002; 129: 35-42.
  94. Irwin M, Brown M, Patterson T, Hauger R, Mascovich A, rant I. Neuropeptide Y and natural killer cell activity: Findings in depression and Alzheimer caregiver stress. FASEB J 1991; 5(15): 3100-7.
  95. Nair MPN, Schwartz SA, Wu KS, Kronfol Z. Effect of Neuropeptide Y on natural killer activity of normal human lymphocytes. Brain Behav Immun 1993; 7(1): 70-7.
  96. Bedoui S, Kawamura N, Straub RH, Pabst R, Yamamura T, von Horsten S. Relevance of Neuropeptide Y for neuroimmune crosstalk . J Neuroimmunol 2003; 134.
  97. Bedoui S, Kromer A, Gebhardt T, Jacobs R, Raber K, Dimitrijevic M et al. Neuropeptide Y receptor-specifically modulates human neutrophil function. J Neuroimmunol 2008; 195(1-2): 88-95.
  98. Straub RH, Schaller T, Miller LE. Neuropeptide Y cotransmission with norepinephrine in the sympathetic nerve-macrophage interplay. J Neurochem 2000; 75(6): 2464-71.
  99. Bours MJL, Swennen ELR, Di Virgilio F, Cronstein BM, Dagnelie PC. Adenosine 5-triphosphate and adenosine as endogenous signaling molecules in immunity and inflammation? Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2006; 112(2): 358-404.
  100. Kolachala VL, Bajaj R, Chalasani, Sitaraman SV. Purinergic receptors in gastrointestinal inflammation. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2008; 294(2): G401-G410.
  101. Wilkin F, Stordeur P, Goldman M, Boeynaems J, Robaye B. Extracellular adenine nucleotides modulate cytokine production by human monocyte-derived dendritic cells: dual effect on IL-12 and stimulation of IL-10. Eur J Immunol 2002; 32: 2409-17.
  102. Perregaux DG, McNiff P, Laliberte R, Conklyn M, Gabel CA. ATP acts as an agonist to promote stimulus-induced secretion of IL-1 beta and IL-18 in human blood. J Immunol 2000; 165(8): 4615-23.
  103. Solle M, Labasi J, Perregaux DG, Stam E, Petrushova N, Koller BH et al. Altered cytokine production in mice lacking P2X7receptors. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(1): 125-1.
  104. Labasi JM, Petrushova N, Donovan C, McCurdy S, Lira P, Payette MM et al. Absence of the P2X7 receptor alters leukocyte function and attenuates an inflammatory response. J Immunol 2002; 168: 6436-45.
  105. Lappin D, Whaley K. Adenosine A2 receptors on human monocytes modulate C2 production. Clin Exp Immunol 1984; 57(2): 454-60.
  106. Cronstein BN, Kramer SB, Weissmann G, Hirschhorn R. Adenosine: a physiological modulator of superoxide anion generation by human neutrophils. J Exp Med 1983; 158(4): 1160-77.
  107. Westfall DP, Todorov LD, Mihaylova-Todorova ST. ATP as a cotransmitter in sympathetic nerves and its inactivation by releasable enzymes. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002; 303(2): 439-44.
  108. Cronstein BM, Naime D, Ostad D. The antiinflammatory mechanism of methotrexate. Increased adenosine release at inflamed sites diminishes leukocyte accumulation in an in vivo model of inflammation. J Clin Invest 1993; 92(6): 2675-82.
  109. Gadangi P, Longaker M, Naime D, Levin RI, Recht PA, Montesinos MC et al. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of sulfasalazine is related to adenosine release at inflamed sites. J Immunol 1996; 156(5): 1937-41.
  110. Flierl MA, Rittirsch D, Nadeau BA, Sarma JV, Day DE, Lentsch AB et al. Upregulation of phagocyte-derived catecholamines augments the acute inflammatory response. PLoS One 2009; 4(2): e4414.
  111. Bergquist J, Tarkowski A, Ekman R, Ewing A. Discovery of endogenous catecholamines in lymphocytes and evidence for catecholamine regulation of lymphocyte function via an autocrine loop. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1994; 91(26): 12912-6.
  112. Josefsson E, Bergquist J, Ekman R, Tarkowski A. Catecholamines are synthesized by mouse lymphocytes and regulate function of these cells by induction of apoptosis. Immunology 1996; 88(1): 140-6.
  113. Bergquist J, Josefsson E, Tarkowski A, Ekman R, Ewing A. Measurements of catecholamine-mediated apoptosis of immunocompetent cells by capillary electrophoresis. Electrophoresis 1997; 18(10): 1760-6.
  114. Musso NR, Brenci S, Setti M, Indiveri F, Lotti G. Catecholamine content and in vitro catecholamine synthesis in peripheral human lymphocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81(10): 3553-7.
  115. Pearson JD, Gordon JL. Vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells in culture selectively release adenine nucleotides. Nature 1979; 281(5730): 384-6.
  116. Schwartz H, Villiger PM, von Kempis J, Lotz M. Neuropeptide Y is an inducible gene in the human immune system. J Neuroimmunol 1994; 51(1): 53-61.
  117. Sperlagh B, Hasko G, Nemeth Z, Vizi ES. ATP released by LPS increases nitric oxide production in raw 264.7 macrophage cell line via P2Z/P2X7 receptors. Neurochem Int 1998; 33(3): 209-15.
  118. Ivanova EP, Alexeeva YV, Pham DK, Wright JP, Nicolau DV. ATP level variations in heterotrophic bacteria during attachment on hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces. Int Microbiol 2006; 9(1): 37-46.
  119. Atarashi K, Nishimura J, Shima T, Umesaki Y, Yamamoto M, Onoue M et al. ATP drives lamina propria TH17 cell differentiation. Nature 2008; 455(7214): 808-8.
  120. Ekblad E, Hakanson R, Sundler F. VIP and PHI coexist with an NPY-like peptide in intramural neurones of the small intestine. Regul Pept 1984; 10(1): 47-55.
  121. Keast JR, Furness JB, Costa M. Distribution of peptide-containing neurons and endocrine cells in the rabbit gastrointestinal tract, with particular reference to the mucosa. Cell Tissue Res 1987; 248(3): 565-77.
  122. Crohn BB, Ginzburg L, Oppenheimer GD. Regional Ileitis. A pathological and clinical entity. JAMA 1932; 99: 1323-9.
  123. Xavier RJ, Podolsky DK. Unravelling the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. Nature 2007; 448(7152): 427-34.
  124. Brown SJ, Mayer L. The immune response in inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2007; 102(9): 2058-69.
  125. Podolsky DK. Inflammatory bowel disease. N Engl J Med 2002; 347(6): 417-29.
  126. Cho JH. The genetics and immunopathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2008; 8(6): 458-66.
  127. Kaser A, Zeissig S, Blumberg RS. Inflammatory bowel disease. Annu Rev Immunol 2010; 28: 573-621.
  128. Wirtz S, Neufert C, Weigmann B, Neurath MF. Chemically induced mouse models of intestinal inflammation. Nat Protoc 2007; 2(3): 541-6.
  129. Whittem CG, Williams AD, Williams CS. Murine colitis modeling using dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). J Vis Exp 2010; 35: 1652.
  130. Elson CO, Sartor RB, Tennyson GS, Riddell RH. Experimental models of inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 1995; 109(4): 1344-67.
  131. Neurath M, Fuss I, Strober W. TNBS-colitis. Int Rev Immunol 2000; 19(1): 51-62.
  132. Straub RH, Grum F, Strauch U, Capellino S, Bataille F, Bleich A et al. Anti-inflammatory role of sympathetic nerves in chronic intestinal inflammation. Gut 2008; 57(7): 911-21.
  133. Cruickshank SM, English NR, Felsburg PJ, Carding SR. Characterization of colonic dendritic cells in normal and colitic mice. World J Gastroenterol 2005; 11(40): 6338-47.
  134. Alex P, Zachos NC, Nguyen T, Gonzales L, Chen TE, Conklin LS et al. Distinct cytokine patterns identified from multiplex profiles of murine DSS and TNBS-induced colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2009; 15(3): 341-52.
  135. Komatsu M, Kobayashi D, Saito K, Furuya D, Yagihashi A, Araake H et al. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha in serum of patients with inflammatory bowel disease as measured by a highly sensitive immuno-PCR. Clin Chem 2001; 47(7): 1297-301.
  136. Mahida YR, Kurlac L, Gallagher A, Hawkey CJ. High circulating concentrations of interleukin-6 in active Crohn”s disease but not ulcerative colitis. Gut 1991; 32(12): 1531-4.
  137. Reimund JM, Wittersheim C, Dumont S, Muller CD, Baumann R, Poindron P, Duclos B. Mucosal inflammatory cytokine production by intestinal biopsies in patients with ulcerative colitis and Crohn”s disease. J Clin Immunol 1996; 16(3): 144-50.
  138. Kuhn R, Lohler J, Rennick D, Rajewsky K, Muller W. Interleukin-10-deficient mice develop chronic enterocolitis. Cell 1993; 75(2): 263-74.
  139. Steidler L, Hans W, Schotte L, Neirynck S, Obermeier F, Falk W et al. Treatment of murine colitis by Lactococcus lactis secreting interleukin-10. Science 2000; 289(5483): 1352-5.
  140. Gulpinar MA, Ozbeyli D, Arbak S, Yegen BC. Anti-inflammatory effect of acute stress on experimental colitis is mediated by cholecystokinin-B receptors. Life Sci 2004; 75(1): 77-91.
  141. BROWN CH. Acute emotional crises and ulcerative colitis. Report of seven cases. Am J Dig Dis 1963; 8: 525-36.
  142. Kirkwood JK, Epstein MA, Terlecki AJ. Factors influencing population growth of a colony of cotton-top tamarins. Lab Anim 1983; 17(1): 35-41.
  143. Robertson DA, Ray J, Diamond I, Edwards JG. Personality profile and affective state of patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 1989; 30(5): 623-6.
  144. Saunders PR, Miceli P, Vallance BA, Wang L, Pinto S, Tougas G et al. Noradrenergic and cholinergic neural pathways mediate stress-induced reactivation of colitis in the rat. Auton Neurosci 2006; 124(1-2): 56-68.
  145. Bjorck S, Dahlstrom A, Ahlman H. Topical treatment of ulcerative proctitis with lidocaine. Scand J Gastroenterol 1989; 24(9): 1061-72.
  146. Furlan R, Ardizzone S, Palazzolo L, Rimoldi A, Perego F, Barbic F et al. Sympathetic overactivity in active ulcerative colitis: effects of clonidine. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2006; 290(1): R224-R232.
  147. Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Insausti CL, Gomez F, Villa S, Lechin AE et al. Treatment of ulcerative colitis with clonidine. J Clin Pharmacol 1985; 25(3): 219-26.
  148. Kakazu T, Hara J, Matsumoto T, Nakamura S, Oshitani N, Arakawa T et al. Type 1 T-helper cell predominance in granulomas of Crohn”s disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94(8): 2149-55.
  149. McCafferty DM, Wallace JL, Sharkey KA. Effects of chemical sympathectomy and sensory nerve ablation on experimental colitis in the rat. Am J Physiol 1997; 272(2 Pt 1): G272-G280.
  150. Benschop RJ, Oostveen FG, Heijnen CJ, Ballieux RE. Beta 2-adrenergic stimulation causes detachment of natural killer cells from cultured endothelium. Eur J Immunol 1993; 23(12): 3242-7.
  151. Benschop RJ, Rodriguez-Feuerhahn M, Schedlowski M. Catecholamine-induced leukocytosis: early observations, current research, and future directions. Brain Behav Immun 1996; 10(2): 77-91.
  152. Smith WB, Gamble JR, Clark-Lewis I, Vadas MA. Interleukin-8 induces neutrophil transendothelial migration. Immunology 1991; 72(1): 65-72.
  153. van der Poll T, Lowry SF. Lipopolysaccharide-induced interleukin 8 production by human whole blood is enhanced by epinephrine and inhibited by hydrocortisone. Infect Immun 1997; 65(6): 2378-81.
  154. Ono N, Mizuno R, Nojiri H, Ohhashi T. Development of an experimental apparatus for investigating lymphatic pumping activity of murine mesentery in vivo. Jpn J Physiol 2000; 50(1): 25-31.
  155. Schaak S, Cussac D, Cayla C, Devedjian JC, Guyot R, Paris H, Denis C. Alpha(2) adrenoceptors regulate proliferation of human intestinal epithelial cells. Gut 2000; 47(2): 242-50.
  156. Harle P, Mobius D, Carr DJ, Scholmerich J, Straub RH. An opposing time-dependent immune-modulating effect of the sympathetic nervous system conferred by altering the cytokine profile in the local lymph nodes and spleen of mice with type II collagen-induced arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2005; 52(4): 1305-13.
  157. Lomax AE. Anti-inflammatory effects of beta3-adrenoceptors: the burgeoning field of neurogastroimmunology. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2008; 20(9): 967-70.
  158. Sevak R, Paul A, Goswami S, Santani D. Gastroprotective effect of beta3 adrenoreceptor agonists ZD 7114 and CGP 12177A in rats. Pharmacol Res 2002; 46(4): 351-6.
  159. Kuratani K, Kodama H, Yamaguchi I. Enhancement of gastric mucosal blood flow by beta-3 adrenergic agonists prevents indomethacin-induced antral ulcer in the rat. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1994; 270(2): 559-65.
  160. Bai A, Lu N, Guo Y, Chen J, Liu Z. Modulation of inflammatory response via alpha2-adrenoceptor blockade in acute murine colitis. Clin Exp Immunol 2009; 156(2): 353-62.
  161. Lomax AE, Fernandez E, Sharkey KA. Plasticity of the enteric nervous system during intestinal inflammation. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2005; 17(1): 4-15.
  162. Collins SM. The immunomodulation of enteric neuromuscular function: implications for motility and inflammatory disorders. Gastroenterology 1996; 111(6): 1683-99.
  163. Zhao A, Bossone C, Pineiro-Carrero V, Shea-Donohue T. Colitis-induced alterations in adrenergic control of circular smooth muscle in vitro in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2001; 299(2): 768-74.
  164. Hatoum OA, Binion DG. The vasculature and inflammatory bowel disease: contribution to pathogenesis and clinical pathology. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2005; 11(3): 304-13.
  165. Beyak MJ, Ramji N, Krol KM, Kawaja MD, Vanner SJ. Two TTX-resistant Na+ currents in mouse colonic dorsal root ganglia neurons and their role in colitis-induced hyperexcitability. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2004; 287(4): G845-G855.
  166. Stewart T, Beyak MJ, Vanner S. Ileitis modulates potassium and sodium currents in guinea pig dorsal root ganglia sensory neurons. J Physiol 2003; 552(Pt 3): 797-807.
  167. Moore BA, Stewart TM, Hill C, Vanner SJ. TNBS ileitis evokes hyperexcitability and changes in ionic membrane properties of nociceptive DRG neurons. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2002; 282(6): G1045-G1051.
  168. Ibeakanma C, Miranda-Morales M, Richards M, Bautista-Cruz F, Martin N, Hurlbut D, Vanner S. Citrobacter rodentium colitis evokes post-infectious hyperexcitability of mouse nociceptive colonic dorsal root ganglion neurons. J Physiol 2009; 587(Pt 14): 3505-21.
  169. Linden DR, Sharkey KA, Mawe GM. Enhanced excitability of myenteric AH neurones in the inflamed guinea-pig distal colon. J Physiol 2003; 547(Pt 2): 589-601.
  170. Lomax AE, Mawe GM, Sharkey KA. Synaptic facilitation and enhanced neuronal excitability in the submucosal plexus during experimental colitis in guinea-pig. J Physiol 2005; 564(Pt 3): 863-75.
  171. Krauter EM, Linden DR, Sharkey KA, Mawe GM. Synaptic plasticity in myenteric neurons of the guinea-pig distal colon: presynaptic mechanisms of inflammation-induced synaptic facilitation. J Physiol 2007; 581(Pt 2): 787-800.
  172. Sanovic S, Lamb DP, Blennerhassett MG. Damage to the enteric nervous system in experimental colitis. Am J Pathol 1999; 155(4): 1051-7.
  173. Vasina V, Barbara G, Talamonti L, Stanghellini V, Corinaldesi R, Tonini M et al. Enteric neuroplasticity evoked by inflammation. Auton Neurosci 2006; 126-127: 264-72.
  174. Krauter EM, Strong DS, Brooks EM, Linden DR, Sharkey KA, Mawe GM. Changes in colonic motility and the electrophysiological properties of myenteric neurons persist following recovery from trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid colitis in the guinea pig. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2007; 19(12): 990-1000.
  175. Lomax AE, O”Hara JR, Hyland NP, Mawe GM, Sharkey KA. Persistent alterations to enteric neural signaling in the guinea pig colon following the resolution of colitis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2007; 292(2): G482-G491.
  176. Spiller R, Garsed K. Postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 2009; 136(6): 1979-88.
  177. Ganguli SC, Kamath MV, Redmond K, Chen Y, Irvine EJ, Collins SM, Tougas G. A comparison of autonomic function in patients with inflammatory bowel disease and in healthy controls. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2007; 19(12): 961-7.
  178. Maule S, Pierangeli G, Cevoli S, Grimaldi D, Gionchetti P, Barbara G et al. Sympathetic hyperactivity in patients with ulcerative colitis. Clin Auton Res 2007; 17(4): 217-20.
  179. Sharma P, Makharia GK, Ahuja V, Dwivedi SN, Deepak KK. Autonomic dysfunctions in patients with inflammatory bowel disease in clinical remission. Dig Dis Sci 2009; 54(4): 853-61.
  180. Kyosola K, Penttila O, Salaspuro M. Rectal mucosal adrenergic innervation and enterochromaffin cells in ulcerative colitis and irritable colon. Scand J Gastroenterol 1977; 12(3): 363-7.
  181. Birch D, Knight GE, Boulos PB, Burnstock G. Analysis of innervation of human mesenteric vessels in non-inflamed and inflamed bowel–a confocal and functional study. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2008; 20(6): 660-70.
  182. Dvorak AM, Osage JE, Monahan RA, Dickersin GR. Crohn”s disease: transmission electron microscopic studies. III. Target tissues. Proliferation of and injury to smooth muscle and the autonomic nervous system. Hum Pathol 1980; 11(6): 620-34.
  183. Dvorak AM, Silen W. Differentiation between Crohn”s disease and other inflammatory conditions by electron microscopy. Ann Surg 1985; 201(1): 53-63.
  184. Magro F, Vieira-Coelho MA, Fraga S, Serrao MP, Veloso FT, Ribeiro T, Soares-da-Silva P. Impaired synthesis or cellular storage of norepinephrine, dopamine, and 5-hydroxytryptamine in human inflammatory bowel disease. Dig Dis Sci 2002; 47(1): 216-24.
  185. Belai A, Boulos PB, Robson T, Burnstock G. Neurochemical coding in the small intestine of patients with Crohn”s disease. Gut 1997; 40(6): 767-74.
  186. Straub RH, Stebner K, Harle P, Kees F, Falk W, Scholmerich J. Key role of the sympathetic microenvironment for the interplay of tumour necrosis factor and interleukin 6 in normal but not in inflamed mouse colon mucosa. Gut 2005; 54(8): 1098-106.
  187. Dong XX, Thacker M, Pontell L, Furness JB, Nurgali K. Effects of intestinal inflammation on specific subgroups of guinea-pig celiac ganglion neurons. Neurosci Lett 2008; 444(3): 231-5.
  188. Motagally MA, Lukewich MK, Chisholm SP, Neshat S, Lomax AE. Tumour necrosis factor alpha activates nuclear factor kappaB signalling to reduce N-type voltage-gated Ca2+ current in postganglionic sympathetic neurons. J Physiol 2009; 587(Pt 11): 2623-34.
  189. Hurst SM, Collins SM. Mechanism underlying tumor necrosis factor-alpha suppression of norepinephrine release from rat myenteric plexus. Am J Physiol 1994; 266(6 Pt 1): G1123-G1129.
  190. Ruhl A, Hurst S, Collins SM. Synergism between interleukins 1 beta and 6 on noradrenergic nerves in rat myenteric plexus. Gastroenterology 1994; 107(4): 993-1001.
  191. Xia Y, Hu HZ, Liu S, Ren J, Zafirov DH, Wood JD. IL-1beta and IL-6 excite neurons and suppress nicotinic and noradrenergic neurotransmission in guinea pig enteric nervous system. J Clin Invest 1999; 103(9): 1309-16.
  192. Hurst S, Collins SM. Interleukin-1 beta modulation of norepinephrine release from rat myenteric nerves. Am J Physiol 1993; 264(1 Pt 1): G30-G35.
  193. Wu ZC, Gaginella TS. Release of [3H]norepinephrine from nerves in rat colonic mucosa: effects of norepinephrine and prostaglandin E2. Am J Physiol 1981; 241(5): G416-G421.

Cover Image Credit

Bidirectional communication channels between the gut microbiome, the gut, and the brain. Endocrine-, neurocrine-, and inflammation-related signals generated by the gut microbiota and specialized cells within the gut can, in principal, affect the brain. In turn, the brain can influence microbial composition and function via endocrine and neural mechanisms. From: Gut Microbes and the Brain: Paradigm Shift in Neuroscience, Symposium Gut Microbes and the Brain: Paradigm Shift in Neuroscience, Emeran A. Mayer, Rob Knight, Sarkis K. Mazmanian, John F. Cryan, and Kirsten Tillisc; The Journal of Neuroscience, November 12, 2014, 34(46):15490 –15496 https://www.jneurosci.org/content/34/46/15490/tab-figures-data


Related stories you may like
:

Noradrenaline-induced M2-polarization in gut macrophages, the brain-gut axis and tissue-homeostasis
Combat-training stress in soldiers, increased intestinal permeability and gastrointestinal symptoms
Catecholamines, bacterial growth, stress and digestive health and disease
Aging, sympathetic innervation and lymphoid organs